Narcissism

Introduction An intersubjective view is a perspective in which different parties agree about a certain issue. Narcissism has elicited a lot of interest and research from the psychodynamic school of thought. However, there is surprising agreement about the manifestations, origins, development and treatment of narcissism.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Narcissism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One demonstrates intersubjective views on a subject by showing how multiple scholars from different schools of thought agree on various aspects of the subject. This report will highlight the intersubjective view of narcissism by comparing object relations theorists to Freudian or ego theorists, self psychology theorists Jungian theorists as well as personality psychologists. Intersubjective view on the definition and manifestation of narcissism Psychologists have a general agreement that a person with narcissistic personal ity disorder is one who exhibits narcissistic behaviour owing to deep-seated feelings of low self esteem (Millon Davis, 1996). They often use arrogance as a cover for their shortfalls. The DSM IV criteria of the condition are indicative of intersubjective agreement. While Millon, a personality theorist, recognised that these behaviours do not come from a place of real confidence and self belief, Forman, a psychodynamic theorist, acknowledges that these individuals often feel empty and unfulfilled (Forman, 1976). Reich, an ego psychology adherent, also concurs with the above, by stating that narcissistic people have an unrealistic view of themselves, yet they cannot measure up to that view (Reich, 1986). This causes them to persistently aspire for high status. Masterson, an objects relations theorist, explains that narcissists are self involved and characterised by depictions of grandiosity (Masterson, 1981). Forman (1976) states that most of these patients strive for perfection, ev en though they have minimal chances of achieving it. Most scholars also have an intersubjective view of the narcissist’s relationship with others. Reich (1986) explains that these individuals do not have a healthy association with others. They instead depend on them to get approval. Forman (1976) adds that they often look to others to gain esteem and respect. Millon Davis (1996) affirm that narcissists often degrade the achievement of others in order to make themselves feel better.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Masterson (1981) claims that it is not unusual to witness feelings of intense envy among them because of the emptiness they feel. Reich (1986) adds that their inadequacies cause them to seek attention from others. When in the presence of others, they will boast and exaggerate their achievements. They often look out for other people’s reactions to them, and are too sensitive to disapproval. In fact, other people’s judgement about them often causes these individuals to experience intense humiliation and sensitivity. Forman (1976) reiterates that a person with the disorder may seek an idealised partner in order to gain affirmation. Masterson (1981) adds that such people will look for perfect partners in order to mirror those idealised qualities for the narcissist. Scholars also agree on some of the manifestations of this condition. The narcissistic person will demonstrate rage even during minor interactions. Such an individual will be offended when his need for approval is frustrated (Reich, 1986). Furthermore, the person is immensely self conscious as his esteem comes from other people’s endorsement. In fact, such a person will undergo sporadic periods of high self esteem and excitement, then go through low moments (Forman, 1976) (Reich, 1986). Masterson (n.d., para. 50) has good explanations concerning why patients exhibit this kind of behaviour. He states that most patients have intimacy and relationship issues because closeness would penetrate their grandiose facade and get to the flawed self. This would trigger feelings of abandonment and devastate the patient. Therefore, the series of narcissistic relationships are enormous. Sometimes, the patient may claim that he lacks friends or may look for unavailable partners. In other scenarios, the narcissistic subject may assert that he feels detached in relationships. All these manifestations depict the need to protect the fragile self from exposure. Additionally, Masterson (n.d., para. 81) explains that persons with this disorder may experience bouts of rage because they have a sense of entitlement, which rarely gets acknowledged.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Narcissism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, other people may not know about that entitlement, hence explaining wh y they cannot acknowledge it. Reich (1986) explains that approval-seeking stems from one’s lack of understanding of their true self. It is a futile attempt at developing a high esteem since one cannot look inward to find this confidence. Wurmser (1981), a Freudian psychologist, explains that subjects will have exhibitionist tendencies because they want to overpower their object. They believe that their words or actions will charm, magnetise and eventually subjugate the other. Origins of narcissism in infancy Most psychodynamic literature traces narcissism to one’s infancy. The pioneer of psychodynamic theory, Sigmund Freud, used his ego theory to explain how narcissism comes about. He starts with the term libido, which refers to the energy that exists in humans owing to sexual and survival impulses. The libido is a prime part of the id, which drives human behaviour. At the infant stage, all humans are born with an innate love for themselves; Freud called this tendency primary narcissism. Usually, the infant’s libido is directed at the self. However, as one grows, then one must learn to redirect this flow of libido to an object. In fact, Freud argued that the goal of therapy should be to replace narcissism with object love (Lee and Martin, 1991). Intersubjective views of infancy exist among a number of scholars. Heinz Kohut, who is the proponent of self psychology, also agreed with Freud on this matter. He believed that human beings had an innate love for the self, and if left unchecked, then it could develop into a narcissistic personality in adulthood (Kohut, 1966). Therefore, the infant treats the world as revolving around himself. Nonetheless, Kohut disagreed with Freud concerning the role of therapy in dealing with narcissism. He claimed that therapists cannot and should not attempt to replace all narcissism with object love as the two can work together (Lee and Martin, 1991). The two scholars differed in terms of therapeutic approache s, but they still had a general consensus about the innate existence of self love in the infant and its modification in adulthood through the introduction of object love.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Childhood experiences and their role in narcissism Kohut (1966) believed that a person’s childhood has an adverse effect on their understanding of the self. As children grow, they exhibit behaviour that is imperative to proper functioning during adulthood. For instance, some of them may have competitive tendencies. However, since their perceptions of the self have not yet developed, then their ability to cultivate this natural behaviour will depend on other people’s reaction. If a child’s family members respond negatively to constructive competitive behaviour, then the child’s perception of the self will be damaged. Some families may reject or humiliate the young person because of exhibiting that conduct. Eventually, the child will suppress that behaviour but it will resurface during their adulthood in a distorted from. One such manifestation is narcissistic behaviour. Almaas (1996) reiterates these sentiments by stating that children are never seen as th ey are. They depend upon external mirrors in order to solidify their senses. The narcissistic need is a primary need for all children as it confirms what they perceive and even allows them to comprehend it. Johnson (1987) also demonstrates intersubjectivity with Kohut (1966) by stating that a child’s weak side ought to be reconciled with their magnificent nature. The familial environment has a large role to play in supporting these two polarities (Johnson, 1987). It can then allow the self to manifest freely. Nonetheless, if the family requires the child to become something that he is not, then chances are that narcissistic injury will occur. Therefore, a general psychoanalyst like Johnson (1987) demonstrates intersubjectivity with Kohut, a self psychologist, concerning the root cause of narcissism in childhood. A child’s experiences can lead to narcissism owing to the helplessness of their situation. Most of the humiliation, unfair treatment, or rejection that takes p lace in childhood cannot be controlled (Kohut, 1966). A child almost feels powerless over the situation that causes him distress. Therefore, such a person may develop a defence mechanism in adulthood where he or she tries to deal with the feeling of helplessness (Wolf, 1988). This narcissist will have a fragile perception of the self in the helpless state, so they may feel compelled to do something to preserve the integrity of the self. Alternatively, situations in which power or specialness is over rewarded may create a sense of vulnerability in the child (Johnson, 1987). Parents may also cause narcissistic injury when they transfer caretaking roles to their children. A child who takes care of their parents will have authority and trust issues. Besides, a child whose achievements elicit envious reactions from parents will experience this condition, as well. The reverse may also be true when a parent lives through their child’s accomplishments, this may also wound the childâ €™s self (Johnson, 1987). Childhood memories of incidences that spark narcissistic rage never disappear. In fact, whenever a person destroys the object that caused him temporary helplessness or shame, another substitute will spark off those feelings again. These experiences in childhood will thus predispose an adult into a pathological state of paranoia (Wolf, 1988). Therefore, Kohut (1966) suggests that therapists must attempt to find the source of that narcissistic discontentment. The importance of tracing one’s childhood experiences is vital to treatment of narcissistic behaviour disorders, according to the self psychology theorist. Intersubjective agreement on the latter fact exists among object relations theorists, as well. Masterson (1981) explains that the degree to which a child’s real self is supported and acknowledged by parents makes a lot of difference. The real self, according to this author is a combination of both good and bad things; it is also spon taneous and autonomous. Almaas (1996), an integral theorist, reiterates that the wrong interpretation of what a child is can cause a sense of betrayal and hurt. Consequently, this leads to confusion about the self. Essentially, the person will grow to become narcissistic. Blanck and Blanck (1974), who are ego theorists, also demonstrate intersubjective agreement by arguing that children loose their self esteem because they get fixated on valuation of the self object. Masterson (n.d., para. 15) also echoes the above sentiments concerning parenting. He claims that persons with narcissistic disorders tend to come from unsupportive homes. Many of their parents try to mould them into perfect beings without thinking about their emotional needs. Therefore, a child will try to be perfect in order to meet a parent’s ideal projections. In adulthood the person will develop a grandiose sense of self in order to protect himself from feelings of abandonment or failure by the parent. Additi onally, if one or all the parents have narcissistic disorders, then chances are the child’s real self will not be supported, and this will lead to narcissism in the child, as well (Masterson, n.d., para. 38). Freud and Kohut also concur on the relevance of idealisation. When children idealise their parents, they learn about the importance of empathising and caring for others through mirroring (Blanck and Blanck, 1974). This allows them to sooth themselves in situations that demand it. Therefore, if ideal role models lack in a child’s life, then they will not have someone to mirror the importance of self worth or the usefulness of empathising with others. Consequently, these subjects’ lack of human identification is reflected in the narcissistic condition, where they do not empathise, identify or care for others. Ambitions and ideals in the narcissistic individual Agreement amongst various scholars also exists on the relevance of ideals and ambitions in developme nt of narcissism. Kohut (1966) explains that hurt pride and inferiority feeling can be manifested very differently in the narcissist. Failure to reconcile an individual’s ideal with the self can cause immense shame. Usually, a person’s conception of the ideal emanates from their parents or mother (Lee and Martin, 1991). If their perception of the ideal differs tremendously from the self, then narcissistic tension will arise. Masterson (1981) also demonstrates intersubjective agreement on the same. He uses the example of authority; a person’s concept of ideal authority emanates from their parent’s manifestation of the same. If a parent was too authoritative or too weak, then chronic problems on ideal authority will arise. The individual may not even trust their own authority. Freud acknowledged that all human beings have inherent drive. He further asserted that drive could either be directed towards death or life. While a number of future psychologists rej ected the aspect of death drive, they still concurred with Freud on the relevance of ambition in life (Wolf, 1988). If applied to narcissism, individuals who fail to use the life drive effectively often experience a sense of inadequacy. Likewise, Kohut (1966) also explains the relevance of drive and ambition in the disorder. He clearly differentiates between useful ambition and dangerous drive. To Kohut, a person can possess either competitive aggressiveness or narcissistic rage. If objects come in the way of one’s goals, then competitive aggressiveness can arise. The psychological consequences of this type of anger is almost insignificant because once the goal has been attained, no psychological residues will exist (Wolf, 1988). A healthy person can easily go through one competitive situation to another without bringing up issues of the past. Conversely if self objects threaten the image of self, then narcissistic rage can arise. The narcissistic individual thinks of others as a means of sustaining the self; if they cease performing this function, and instead do the reverse, then they must be eradicated. Narcissistic rage arises when the person feels helpless about his situation after others have damaged it (Kohut, 1966). The goal of therapy Several scholars also agree on reactions of narcissists during therapy. Many adherents to the self psychology theory agree that constraints of time and resources may interfere with the effectiveness of therapy. This is especially because it may lead to irritation in the analysand. Additionally, because the narcissistic individual always focuses on indulging the self, then certain behaviour may be perceived as a threat to the client. For instance, the person may interpret prolonged silence as an attack against him. Additionally, if a therapist appears to be too rigid and neutral, then this may spark off narcissistic rage (Wolf, 1988). Usually, the severity of the situation is determined by its resemblance to past ca uses of narcissism. It is at such moments that the concerned therapist can intervene by explaining and interpreting the situation to the client. Healing may take place through restoration of the self. On the flipside, these irritations in therapy may be so disturbing that they may destroy the therapist’s credibility to the patient. In such circumstances, the patient may terminate his sessions as he cannot reconcile damage to the self and the therapeutic intervention. Usually, failure will occur if the therapeutic situation is too severe or too much of a trigger for narcissistic rage (Kohut, 1966). In other scenarios, treatment of narcissistic rage may not just occur in persons with narcissistic personality disorders. On occasion, people with borderline personality may also have the condition. In such scenarios, interpretations can be more detrimental than helpful to treatment. The client may respond to intervention as a threat to the self. In such situations, the counsellor m ust demonstrate empathy and exercise a lot of patience before tangible results can be seen (Wolf, 1988). Masterson also represents the object relations view of this perspective by adding that most narcissists find it hard to accept therapeutic help because it involves surrender. In their childhood, most of them had to become helpless and powerless in order to get their family’s attention; consequently, it is understandable when they do not want to put themselves in that vulnerable situation again (Masterson, 1981). Narcissism marginalises the act of surrender and causes many individuals to respond negatively to psychological intervention. Therefore, one of the goals of therapy should be to explain the usefulness of surrender. Counsellors ought to identify instances of love, generosity and care, which depend on surrender as a core principle. Masterson (1981) concurs with Kohut (1966) in terms of identifying and explaining instances of misunderstood emotions. Aside from surrend er, Masterson (1981) also reiterates that making a therapeutic alliance with narcissistic patients is fragile. He explains that it stems from the developmental fixation that occurred in the patient’s life. As a result, such a person may respond negatively to certain qualities of therapy. The narcissist has challenges with maintenance of boundaries and difficulties in handling frustration. Therefore, therapists must be wary of these challenges and expect periodic breakdowns. It is the effective management of these breakdowns that lead to success in management f the condition (Masterson, n.d.). Freud also demonstrated intersubjective agreement regarding the goal of treatment. He believed that one must trace the source of the patient’s triggers. Oedipal dynamics come into play here (Blanck Blanck, 1974). A therapist ought to identify the stage in the patient’s development where the libido (or the psychic energy) got fixed. Sometimes these memories may be repressed and the client may not know that the source of his narcissistic behaviour stems from a certain stage. The therapist must work with the patient in order to identify those aspects. To do this, one must determine the issues that cause the patient to become highly sensitive. For instance, the person may complain about a business partner who let him down or a spouse who did the same. A theme of betrayal may emerge from these interventions. Consequently, one should trace the instances of betrayal in the patient’s childhood that may have led to this hypersensitivity or betrayal. To Freud, and other ego psychologists, therapists must reconstruct measures conducted by the ego (the safeguard of a person’s innate desires and passions) calculatingly. Since the ego represses things or carries out its actions invisibly, then one must identify the missing elements in one’s psychology and work around it thoroughly. Freud and other scholars like Kohut also agreed on the reparen ting roles in therapy. Both psychologists argue that transference can take place between the patient and the therapist. In essence, the patient starts thinking of the counsellor as an idealised parent. The professional can then give them some of the things that they think they missed. Masterson (1981) also talks about the relevance of transference in treatment. The psychologist explains that transference ought not to be perceived as an object relationship; instead, the therapy should be merely regarded as a temporary board in which the patient can direct his conflicts. However, he adds that effective transference only takes place when the patient views the therapist in a realistic light; that is, as an imperfect person. In Jungian theory, scholars also echo the above sentiments about the goal of therapy. These adherents claim that psychologists should strive to get to the self, where the self is one of a number of Jungian archetypes. Jung believed that the self is at the core of the personality. If a person can unite all the aspects of the self, then he can become whole again. Therapists handling narcissistic patients should strive for integration. Conclusion Intersubjective agreement exists on the definition and manifestation of narcissism. Object relations, Freudian, and self psychologist theorists all agree that narcissistic subjects have an illusionary self confidence and feeling of superiority. However, these depictions disguise feelings of inadequacy. Additionally, intersubjective agreements also exist in regard to the origin of narcissism in infancy. Scholars in the self psychology school as well as the Freudian school agree that narcissistic disorders start from infancy, where a child’s love for himself is narcissistic. Intersubjective views on the development of narcissism in childhood revolve around the supportive role of the family and finding the real self. Psychologists representing divergent psychodynamic theories believe that parental pro jections in children can hamper the development of the true self and thus cause narcissist injury. Objects relations theorists emphasise fixation on the self object while Freudians dwell on oedipal fixation; self psychologists talk about the inferior sense of self. All these scholars agree on psychological injury in one’s childhood. Lastly, agreement also exists on the goal of therapy among various psychodynamic theorists. At the heart of their arguments is the need to identify the source of incompleteness in one’s self. Self psychologists suggest the use of empathy and transference; Freudians also talks about transference while object relations theorists emphasise reconciliation of the self with the self object. Additionally, all scholars also agree on the fragility of therapeutic setting with these kinds of subjects. References Almaas, A. (1996). The point of existence. Boston: Shambhala Press. Blanck, Gertrude, Blanck, Rubin. (1974). Ego psychology: Theory and prac tice. New York: Columbia University Press. Forman, M. (1976). Narcissistic disorders and the oedipal fixations. In J. Feldstein (Ed.), The Annual of Psychoanalysis (pp. 65-92). New York: International Universities. Johnson, S. (1987). Humanizing the narcissistic style. New York: Norton Kohut, H. (1966). Forms and Transformations of Narcissism. In C. Strozier (Ed.), self psychology and the humanities (pp. 97-123). New York: Norton. Lee, R. and Martin, C. (1991). Psychotherapy After Kohut: A Textbook of Self Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. Masterson, J. (n.d.). Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy of the Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Closet): A Developmental Self and Object Relations Approach. Web. Masterson, J. (1981). The narcissistic and borderline disorders. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Millon, T. and Davis, R. (1996). Disorders of Personality: DSM-IV and Beyond. New York: Wiley. Reich, A. (1986). Pathological forms of self-esteem regulation. In A. P. Morrison (Ed.), Essen tial papers on narcissism (pp. 44-60). NY: McMillan. Wolf, E. (1988). Treating the Self: Elements of Clinical Self Psychology. New York: The Guilford Press. Wurmser, L. (1981). The Mask of Shame. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. This essay on Narcissism was written and submitted by user Bast10n to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Bush or Kerry essays

Bush or Kerry essays There are less than 90 days until November 2nd; the race between Bush and Kerry for the White House is close and exhilarating. People all over United States are wondering who will win the 2004 election: Kerry or Bush? Even though both candidates made a plethora of speeches, and held campaign after campaign, only one man can win. That man should be John Kerry; He has an authoritative presence, he communicates a positive vision for our country, and he promotes keeping our environment safe for future generations. A president should always have an authoritative presence and look; many individuals have heard the saying you can either make or break a man, but an authoritative presence and look can either make or break a presidency. Kerry looks very presidential to many observers: he is tall, thin, an exceedingly serious. Thus, to some, he commands respect and appears dependable. Furthermore, Kerrys loud and deep speaking style suggests a level of seriousness that many want in the Oval Office. President Bush is, after all, the President of the United States, so it is hard to question his presence, but often the President (who is at least five inches shorter than Kerry!) has a problem measuring up to his opponent, especially when they appear side-by-side at the presidential debates. Communicating a positive and inspirational vision to the people at presidential debates is the gold standard that makes candidates into leaders in todays elections. Bush, on occasion, has risen to a level where he inspired people. His speeches after the September 11th crisis were excellent and touched many people, but lately he has fallen flat. His speeches at the recent Republican Convention were a failure, and they were greeted with yawns and disbelief. Furthermore, President Bush seemed obsessed with the war in Iraq; it would appear as if that was his most important job right now ...

Evaluate the contributions of Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois to the Harlem Essay

Evaluate the contributions of Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois to the Harlem Renaissance - Essay Example Following his call for racial pride, a movement called the United Negro Improvement Association was formed, turning most Blacks into adopting the socialist and communist social practices (Gifford 2). The movement preceded a united front of African Americans from all social and economic points unwilling to settle for further oppressions. This rebellion received unprecedented publishing job opportunities among the African Americans. Activists like W. E. B. Du Bois used this opportunities to influence and motivate the people into racial consciousness and pride. Harlem Renaissance’s artistic output had two ideologies; one presented by Du Bois and others who saw artistic art as a platform where talented African Americans could lead in the fight for equality (Gifford 4). Du Bois contributed heavily towards the organization of the Niagara Movement, an assembly of black leaders opposed to the Washingtons leadership and was committed to fighting for civil equality for African Americans. This movement, however, never achieved a firm institutional foundation except for that it signaled a new black assertiveness and contributing directly to the establishment of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Du Bois moved to New York City where he took office as the director of publicity for NAACP his role being to edit its monthly journal, ‘The Crisis’ (Gifford 3). Organized economic and political movements helped the Harlem Renaissance by creating a new sense of power (Gifford 4). In his work The New Negro, Du Bois exudes a sense of social pride that was the theme in the Harlem Renaissance. Du Bois emphasizes the need for a united race in conquering discrimination. Using his artistic wits and social privileges, Du Bois provided a liberating step in the search for Africa American cultural identity and on their terms. Using Negro Art, he argued that

Community outreach project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Community outreach project - Essay Example The mission of initiating a new service is to evaluate community-based library outreach programs using various components that are paired with relevant alternative strategies. In order to achieve its mission, there are various strategies that have to put into consideration to facilitate the process of community outreach program in the field of nursing. However, this paper intend to discuss two of those strategies and these encompasses directional strategy and market strategy. From research, a directional strategy is frequently developed focusing on different components such as, progress, steadiness, as well as cost cutting (Addis & Gamble, 2004). Therefore, for an organization intending to introduce a new service for patients, before establishing a directional strategy, it is vital to define the main objective of such an action. For instance, the main intention of this new service is to increase profits and cut costs at the same time, while improving the lives of patients through the community outreach program. By identifying the objective of introducing the new service, it becomes easier to choose the best type of directional strategy that suits the outreach program (Kreuter, Lezin & Young, 2000). For example, by using cost-cutting strategy, it will be easy to carry out rationalizations, eradicating particular products from the line before introducing the new one, or even file for impoverishment or selling out. The significance of a directional strategy is to play as a control to direct an organization through both peaceful and unsettled times (Berwick, 2003). Directional strategy helps in maintaining the objective of the new service to be introduced in the market; it also stabilizes and helps in the expansion of profits as well as makes it possible for the business to move forward with its activities without losing tract of the intended project. The key objective of a directional strategy is to keep the business focused in the planned manner probable while pr oceeding to expand both returns and services provided to patients in the community outreach program. In most cases, directional strategies enable the introduction or the initiation of the new service to develop in one of the two paths. These include either perpendicular or straight expansion. In this case, vertical expansion implies that introducing the new service will focus on present clients and clients increase their spending on the new service or establishing new clients with the new service. On the other hand, horizontal expansion encompasses pursuing new customers and those clients in the immediate location to enjoy the new service that is being offered. It also involves enlarging the outreach to other areas in order to expand the client base of the new service. Another strategy that will be used in this process includes the market strategy. As it is known, a strategy is always a long-term plan that is established to attain particular objectives. Thus, a market strategy is a plan developed to attain marketing goals for the new service intended to be introduced in the nursing field (Whitney, Dutcher& Keselman, 2013). For instance, marketing goal may be to initiate a new service by appreciating clients or patients. The strategic plan thus is the complete planning that includes marketing research, and then establishing a marketing mix to appreciate clients. It is essential for every business or organization

Unit 4 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 4 - Coursework Example In addition, the FPI contract bears target cost, ceiling price, target profit, and formula of sharing profits (Garrett, 2006). CS: This contract falls under cost reimbursement contract type. In this case, the buyer and seller agree to venture into a joint effort to undertake research that serves mutual interests. Since the seller accrues commercial benefits to the seller, the contracts exempts payment of fees. In addition, the seller offloads some of the performance costs in need of benefiting the seller’s firm. T&M: This contract type is concerned with time management and time-sensitive contracts. For a carnival services, the requirement for contract labor is crucial as events are not consecutive. In this case, T&M contract is the best suited as it considers timed labor with specific compensation. On the down side, T&M discourages effective control of costs (Garrett, 2006). In advertising to attract the most competitive entities within the marketplace, selection and segmentation of the potential target entities are essential consideration. In order to filter the best from the rest, the advert is to clearly communicate the competitive edge of the advertised business venture. The channel of communication is an important aspect in advertising. However, in order to catch the attention of the target entities, the campaign is to use the medium of communication most accessed by the target

The importance of the theory of Keynesian Economics

The importance of the theory of Keynesian Economics The theory of economics called Keynesian Economics, or Keynesianism, is named after the British economist John Maynard Keynes. Keynes lived from 1883 1946, and was considered the greatest and most influential economist of the 20th century. (Kangas, 1996). It was the use of the Keynesian Theory of economics by the government that was a strong influence of the Great Depression coming to an end. Because of this, he is known as the father of modern economics. (Kangas, 1996). When Keynes first suggested the use of his theory to help solve the problems of the Great Depression, he was not met with the same enthusiasm. Because of the incredible size and widespread effects of the Great Depression, many felt that any cause of such devastation must be as complicated as the results. Keynes, however, had a simple explanation of the cause of the Great Depression. In fact, upon sharing his theory with President Franklin Roosevelt, the President dismissed his words by saying that such a theory is too easy. (Kangas, 1996). The theory for which was considered too easy (Kangas, 1996) by President Roosevelt was actually fairly simple. In regards to the explanation of slumps in the economy, Keynes had a simple reasoning. Keynes explained that in any normal economy, the level of employment is high, and therefore the earnings of the people are spent as usual, meaning there is a circular flow of money in the economy. With this circular flow, the money spent by one person becomes the income of another person, and those earnings are spent and become the earnings of the previous person. However, when something happens in the economy to worry consumers and shake their confidence, those consumers will then decide to save their money instead of spending it to prepare for whatever lies ahead. Unfortunately the saving of that consumer will affect other people because the money saved instead of spent is no longer given to the intended person. When people save instead of spend, it affects others that are no longer gett ing the expected income, and they will then start saving themselves. It becomes a viscous circle which makes the times and economy more difficult. (Kangas, 1996). With the obviously negative effects that a slump would cause within an economy, Keynes devised a cure for the problem. The cure for this problem, which is also considered to be quite simple, is for banks to increase or expand the supply of money. By doing so, the people would have more money, which would increase confidence in the economy by the consumer now having more earnings. With the increased confidence, people would begin to spend, which would re-establish the circular flow of money. (Kangas, 1996). The larger problem of the Great Depression, however, was much larger than that of a recession, or slump. Keynes belief of the depression was that it was actually a recession that had fallen into something called a liquidity trap. (Kangas, 1996). A liquidity trap is due to those people that choose to save their money rather than spend, and will continue to do so regardless of how much the supply of money is increased by the government. Due to the lack of consumer spending, Keynes believed that the government should then be the one doing the spending, since the consumers were not. This idea of increasing government spending was considered a final effort by the government to reestablish the circular flow of money. (Kangas, 1996). In Keynes own words, he called this last-ditch effort by the government, priming the pump. (Kangas, 1996). Although in the end Keynes theories were used to end the Great Depression, they were at first rejected. To many economists, the end of the Great Depression was caused by World War II, in which the United States started spending massive amounts of money on defense. Because of this, many say that wars are good for the economy. (Kangas, 1996). Wars are considered to cause an economic boom due to the massive amounts of spending during the war, which is in extent the definition of Keynesian spending. With Keynesian spending, the U.S. went to the greatest economic boom ever, from the greatest depression ever, all due to the theory of Keynesian Economics. The use of Keynesian Economics during this time was so successful that President Nixon declared, We are all Keynesians now. (Kangas, 1996). This view of Keynesian Economics was dominant from the 1940s to the 1970s, until others began to challenge this theory. (Boyes Melvin, 2008, p.347). In an explanation of Keynesian Economics by Alan S. Blinder (2008), he defines Keynesian Economics as a theory of total spending in the economy (called aggregate demand) and its effects on output and inflation. Upon researching Keynesian Economics, there appear to be many principal ideas to the theory. The first idea, or belief, is that aggregate demand is influenced by a host of economic decisions both public and private and sometimes behaves erratically. (Blinder, 2008). These economic decisions are based on things like spending and taxes. Many economists believe that both taxes and spending affect aggregate demand. (Blinder, 2008) Another belief of Keynesian Economics is that changes in aggregate demand, whether anticipated or unanticipated, have their greatest short-run effect on real output and employment, not on prices. (Blinder, 2008). This idea is shown when inflation slowly rises as unemployment falls. This belief of Keynesians is that what can be seen in the short run is not necessarily the same as the long run. Also, due to the rigidity of prices, any changes or fluctuations in spending, whether by government spending, investment, or consumption, will cause a change or fluctuation of output. For example, if there is an increase in government spending, then an increase in output should occur, as long as the other areas of spending are constant. (Blinder, 2008). In addition, this model of Keynesian economics also has a multiplier effect. With this multiplier effect, output increases by a multiple of the original change in spending that caused it. (Blinder, 2008). For this multiplier to work, however, it must not be less than zero. Also, in yet another belief of Keynesians is that prices, and especially wages, respond slowly to changes in supply and demand, resulting in periodic shortages and surpluses, especially of labor. (Blinder, 2008). In this belief, it is stated that flexibility is limited in terms of wages and prices, no matter the arrangements. (Blinder, 2008) These beliefs are all included in the theory of Keynesian Economics. Although this theory was greatly used during the 1940s to the 1970s, it became much less commonly used, and was replaced with other economic theories. Since then, however, the theory of Keynesian Economics had made a comeback. The main reason for this comeback was due to the ability of this theory to explain the events that have happen since the end of the Great Depression better than many other economic theories. (Blinder, 2008). In conclusion, the theory of Keynesian Economics was an extremely important part of the history of the economy. This theory was an enormous part of the end of the Great Depression. It also was a key in giving an explanation to the various changes in the economy, such as slumps and recessions. While not all economists may agree that this theory is the way to correct problems in the economy, it was very obviously the correct theory needed for its time. Because of the importance of this theory, the creator of the theory, John Maynard Keyes, is considered the father of modern economics. (Kangas, 1996).

How John Lennon Made the Beatles More Popular than Jesus Essay

The story of the most legendary group in the history of popular music began in 1960, in Liverpool, England. The Beatles, were an English rock band, whose most well-known lineup, consisting of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, is considered by many as the most innovative, emulated, and successful music group of the twentieth century. John Lennon was largely responsible for the development of the band, since he, together with Paul McCartney, wrote most of the music for the Beatles. Lennon is largely responsible for the Beatles being considered the first rock performers who were truly considered groundbreaking artists in their own time, and years after the band broke up, with his lyrics, â€Å"Beatlemania†, and the controversy that he caused the band. John Winston Lennon was born in Liverpool, England on Oct. 9, 1940. His father abandoned the family when John was a baby, and his mother, Julia (after whom Lennon titled a song on the ‘Double White Album’ in 1968) could never bring herself to settle down to parenthood, leaving her son to be raised by her sister, Mimi Smith, and her husband. Growing up in a working class family provided John with a typical upbringing and exposure to current music. As a teenager, while studying at art school in Liverpool, Lennon decided to follow his passion for music, and started the group, The Quarrymen. In 1957, Lennon met Paul McCartney, who became a member later that year, when the group first played at The Cavern, a local jazz club. In early 1958, McCartney introduced Lennon to another guitarist, George Harrison, who was accepted as a member of the group without hesitation. The Quarrymen continued as before, with Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison joined by other young ... ...The Beatles. Avonmouth: Parragon Book Service, 1994. Print. Gopnik, Adam. "A Point of View: Why Are the Beatles so Popular 50 Years On?" BBC News. BBC, 15 June 2012. Web. 12 Nov. 2013. Hogan, Randolph. "He Love They Take and Make: Beatles Beatles Bibliography." The New York Times 5 Apr. 1981: 9. ProQuest. Web. 12 Nov. 2013. Lennon, John, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. "Beatles Chicago Press Conference #1 - 8/11/1966 - Beatles Interviews Database." Interview. Beatles Interviews Database. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2013. "Lennon of Beatles Sorry for Making Remark on Jesus." The New York Times 12 Aug. 1966: 38. ProQuest. Web. Turner, Steve. The Beatles: A Hard Day's Write. New York: MJF, 1994. Print. Urish, Ben, and Kenneth G. Bielen. The Words and Music of John Lennon. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007. Print. The Praeger Singer-Songwriter Collection.